Importance of Group Work in the ESL Classroom

Importance of Group Work in the ESL Classroom Introduction The field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is a rapidly expanding area within UK settings, in state-funded and in private educational arenas, and because of the changing nature of immigration, ESOL teachers are challenged with meeting the demands of diverse and complicated ethnic/linguistic groups (Chan, 1998). Learning English is seen as a necessity for immigrants or long term visitors to the UK, although the field is complicated by political debates and social discussions around funding, socialisation, naturalisation and the erosion of traditional cultures and languages. However, it does seem that language fluency in English is key to proper integration into British society, and is supported by the â€Å"UK Government’s policy response to refugees and asylum seekers [as] outlines in the White Paper Secure Borders, Safe Haven: Integration and Diversity in Modern Britain (Home Office, 2002) [which] set out proposals for a curriculum of English languag e, IT and citizenship classes for refugees and asylum seekers† (Morrice (2007) p 156). While the Therefore, it is essential that ESOL provision is not only provided, but is designed in ways which can encourage learners to acquire real proficiency and fluency, without disempowering people or undermining their nationality (Halliday, 2005). The literature on the pedagogies of ESOL teaching is diverse and outlines ways in which second language acquisition can be facilitated effectively, with teachers having their own take on pedagogy and on the ways in which students work, alone or with each other, in learning English (Dagenais et al, 2008; Burns, 2006). While linguistics studies directly address issues of grammar, syntax, construction, coherence and cohesion, the more practical aspects of developing practical fluency in English for speakers of other languages relate to classroom strategies that can support this. This essay will explore two aspects of ESOL teaching, that of group work, in which ESOL students are encouraged to work together on key tasks, with the aim of improving fluency (Haneda, 2005), and the provision of feedback, either peer feedback or tutor feedback, to enhance fluency. Both are contentious issues, because they can spell difficulties in the management of learning experiences (Holliday, 2005), and co uld be seen positively or negatively. This essay will look at some of the literature on this subject, and attempt to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group or collaborative work, and of different types of feedback. The author will then draw conclusions from the literature to inform ESOL teaching practice. Discussion Group work is a popular means of building on constructivist theories and pedagogies by supporting students to apply new knowledge in given situations. In ESOL teaching, it provides opportunities to practice new words, conversations, sentence constructions, and functional elements of communication, such as making a particular type of telephone call or initiating a conversation. However, group work in this context can be viewed negatively as well, partly because of a fear that groups with the same first language will simply lapse into their own tongue rather than always speaking English, and that as learners they will not recognise each other’s mistakes. The latter point will be dealt with in some more detail below, in the exploration of types of feedback. But in relation to group work, types of collaborative or group learning or practice have been shown to be of great benefit to students of English. Some authors have found that pair work or small group work in this context does help improve language fluency and competence (Long, 1996; Pica et al, 1996), perhaps because these activities provide different opportunities and options for ESOL learners which are not possible during teacher-led activities. These students may find themselves able to become more confident in a setting which is not only smaller, but comprises only peers who are also ESOL students. Johnson 91995) argues that learners who interact and engage with each other in these ways feel more self-efficacy and control over their own learning. However, others argue that small group work in peer-only groups does not necessarily help with issues such as pronunciation (Morley, 1991) and proper grammar (Widodo, 2006; Widdowson, 1978). Another particular issue for group work is that of English intonation, which can be particularly difficult and may represent for some the last hurdle of English fluency and comprehension (Atoy e, 2005; Morgan, 1997). McDonough (2004) carried out a small-scale research study which â€Å"explored instructors and learners perceptions about the use of pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context, and examined whether the learning opportunities theoretically attributed to pair and small group activities occurred in an intact classroom† (p 207). The study also looked at whether the learners showed improved outcomes (McDonough, 2004). McDonough (2004) found that â€Å"learners who had more participation during the pair and small group activities demonstrated improved production of the target forms, even though they did not perceive the activities as useful for learning language† (p 207). This would suggest that these activities might improve elements of fluency and skill, but this study does not demonstrate how this occurs, nor does it look in detail at language fluency, which is our concern here. Li and Campbell (2008) carried out a study in New Zealand which  examined â€Å"Asian students perceptions of the much-promulgated cooperative learning concepts in the form of group work and group assignments†, and â€Å"found that Asian students valued highly the significance of classroom group discussions where they could interact with students from other cultures and backgrounds, improve their English-language skills, enhance their cultural understanding and provide them with opportunities to make friends† (P 203). Again, this underlines social elements of group working in ESOL learning which may be important in developing true fluency, because the elements of language skills and enhancing cultural understanding can be related to development of deeper-level fluency. Not all the outcomes of this study were positive, however, and LI and Campbell (2008) also found that these Asian students â€Å"held intensely negative views about group assignments that required stud ents to complete a project as a group with shared marks determined by the performance of the group† (p 207). This may have something to do with the learner orientations of these students, or it may have to do with other factors. Li and Campbell (2008) found that â€Å"contributing factors affecting group dynamics included members attitudes and willingness to cooperate and contribute as a team, the composition of the group, students competing demands on students time and attention, heterogeneity from the natural abilities of students, and the varying cultural values and beliefs held by group members† (p 207). Because Li and Campbell (2008) found that group assignments that were assessed seemed to disempower the students in their study, it would suggest that group activities which are collaborative have a different meaning than group activities which are assessed, and this should be taken into account when applying group working to ESOL classrooms. However, the study does suggest the group learning itself enhanced competency level (Li and Campbell, 2008). The negative responses to the group assessment activities may have had something to do with students’ preconceptions or expectations about their ESOL learning (Bordia et al, 2006). Expectations which are not fulfilled might negatively affect responses to and evaluations of these learning activities (Bordia et al, 2006). These expectations, of course, may originate in the background, culture and previous experiences of the learner, which would suggest that teachers need to take into account these kinds of expectations and find ways to address them. Ewal (2004) describes a study which focuses on the student perspective on group work, in which â€Å"21 students and their teachers participated in a collaborative forum in which they explored the use of small group work in their L2 classroom.† (p 163). This study found that by engaging students, in an almost metacognitive way, in learning about how the group work affected their learning and behaviour, the students were able to discover the benefits of group work for themselves, in improving their literacy and fluency, and in supporting peer bonding, confidence and self-efficacy (Ewal, 2004). In this study, small group behaviours changed as the students became aware of these behaviours and of the functions of the group and the class as a whole (Ewal, 2004). This demonstrates that while group work is still viewed along pedagogical lines as a requisite of proper learning, through application and testing of knowledge, the dynamics of group work require some attention, and may act as militating or mediating factors in the effectiveness of group activities. Ewal (2004) concludes that â€Å"teachers should be attentive to opportunities to discuss language learning and classroom-related issues with their students† (p 175). This adds an extra dimension to the concept of group work, as functioning for students on many levels, not simply on a praxis/practice level. Of course, the discussion of group work leads us neatly into the concept of peer feedback, which is connected to the theories on group activities and just as contentious, it seems. Rollinson (2005) shows how although peer feedback has been supported in ESL classrooms, teachers and students are less than convinced of its efficacy and usefulness. Rollinson (2005) argues that proper training and procedures for peer feedback in ESOL classrooms is the key to making such feedback effective. Hu (2005) seems to echo this, that peer feedback can enhance learning, but does acknowledge that these activities need monitoring and that peer review situations can be problematic. Feedback and review of English language proficiency can be formalised into learning activities in the classroom context. Al-Hazmi and Scholfield (2007) describe an action research study which was aimed at improving English language writing proficiency in Saudi Arabian university students. This study involved â€Å"a regime of enforced draft revision, using a checklist† in which two groups were involved, one trained in peer revision, the other doing their own revision (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). These authors found that â€Å"there were clear draft improvements in quality, especially in mechanics, despite only modest amounts of meaning-changing an d multisentential revisions being recorded† Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). The most significant finding from this study demonstrated that the students enjoyed and responded positively to peer review (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007). This may simply underline the fact that language learning is as much a social as an individual process (Dagenais et al, 2008; Roberts and Baynham, 2006; Schellekens, 2007) Formal tutor feedback is also an essential component of developing fluency, although again, the form that this takes can affect its value. Hyland and Hyland (2006), for example, agree that feedback is vital in terms of encouraging learning and consolidating that learning, and demonstrate that it is used in process-based classrooms and in genre-orientated learning environments. It may seem obvious to some that tutor feedback is important, but teachers and learners should be aware that feedback has different purposes, as well as different forms, and while it can be difficult for some students to assimilate feedback and correction, it is through signposting mistakes as well as successes that students can learn how much they have learned. Feedback itself has expanded to encompass not only written comments from the teacher, but language workshops, conferences and even electronic feedback (Hyland and Hyland, 2006). Lyster and Mori (2006) examined the effects of explicit correction, recasts, and prompts on learner uptake and repair, and found that â€Å"instructional activities and interactional feedback that act as a counterbalance to a classrooms predominant communicative orientation are likely to prove more effective than instructional activities and interactional feedback that are congruent with its predominant communicative orientation† (p 269). This suggests that feedback must be specific to the task and to the context, and also that there is a need for a deeper understanding of the pedagogical dimensions of formal tutor feedback, and the purpose that this feedback serves. This also shows that the emergence of the communicative classroom is not necessarily the final evolution of the ESOL context (Campbell an d Duncan, 2007). However, there are those who have argued strongly against written feedback, and the trends in ESOL teaching in recent years has been to avoid this (Bitchener, 2008). However, research by Bitchener (2008) shows that in some cases, written feedback enhances learning: The study found that the accuracy of students who received written corrective feedback in the immediate post-test outperformed those in the control group and that this level of performance was retained 2 months later. Bitchener 2008 p 102. This would seem to suggest that there is value in providing written tutor feedback. Lochtman (2002) also shows the value of oral or verbal feedback, but underlines the need to give different kinds of feedback depending on the language learning context, the task, and the learner, suggesting that while this feedback is beneficial, it is only so if it meets the needs of the individual learner. One of the issues with fluency is also related to currency (Taylor, 2006), and it could be that the provision of both types of feedback is central to understanding the current use of various idiomatic forms as well as of slang and vernacular. While many ESOL teaching contexts shy away from teaching ‘common’ spoken forms and focus on formal, correct English, feedback from a tutor, for example, can help to draw comparisons between the two forms and allow students to develop awareness of when it is appropriate to use the different types of English expression (Taylor, 2006; Wallace, 2006). This ability to speak fluently is much more complex than simply learning linguistic form, it is about attaining a degree of comfort and ease with using the language, and using it appropriately and ‘naturally’. All of these approaches to supporting language learning could be said to be fostering this development, but only if they are properly planned, and managed, and it seems that quality ‘teaching’ and facilitation is still required. Conclusion This essay demonstrates that there is a range of literature to support the development of language fluency in ESOL classrooms through group work and through interactive processes of learning, and through the provision of tutor feedback and peer feedback. There are issues and challenges with ESOL learning in relation to developing verbal skills, because verbal language requires real-time interaction and the ability to respond to different cues and situations. It would seem from the literature cited above that the use of group work in ESOL learning needs to be planned carefully and designed to ensure that learning is not impeded by individual differences or by the negative aspects of group work, including frustration between learners with different levels of competency, and difficulties in group work which is assessed formally. Collaborative learning may be a strength in developing fluency, and this could be incorporated with peer feedback, but it would seem that this is only truly effective if the students are ‘trained’ and supported in giving feedback to ensure it is fair and an constructive, and given in the appropriate spirit. Similarly, it would seem that feedback may assist in developing fluency, but the literature cited does not provide strong or conclusive evidence that formal feedback is good for this, despite its value in developing written and verbal language skills. More research is required in looking at different kinds of feedback in supporting fluency. However, the literature does indicate that feedback must be individualised and meet the needs of the learner. References Al-Hazmi, S.H. and Scholfield, P. (2007) Enforced revision with checklist and peer feedback in EFL writing: the example of Saudi university students. Scientific Journal of King Faisal University (Humanities and Management Sciences 18 (2)237-267. Atoye, R.O. (2005) Non-native perception of English intonation. Nordic Journal of African Studies14 (1) 26-42. Bitchener, J. (2008) Evidence in support of written corrective feedback Journal of Second Language Writing 17 (2) 102-118. Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6 Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105 Campbell, C. and Duncan, G. (2007) From Theory to Practice: General Trends in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology and Their Influence on Language Assessment. Language and Linguistics Compass 1 (6) 592-611 Chan, M..M. (1998) What We Already Know about Teaching ESL Writers (Research in the Classroom). English Journal 77 (6) 84-85 Chen, R. and Hird, B. (2006) Group Work in the Efl Classroom in China: A Closer Look. RELC Journal, 37 (10) 91-103. Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108. Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179. Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420. Haneda,. M. (2005) Some Functions of Triadic Dialogue in the Classroom: Examples from L2 Research Canadian Modern Language Review 62 (2) 313-333 Hyland, K. and Hyland, F (2006). Feedback on second language students writing. Language Teaching, 39 83-101. Holliday, A. (2005) The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language New York: Oxford University Press. Hu, G. (2005) Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching Research 9 (3) 321-342. Johnson,K.E. (1995) Understanding communication in second language classrooms New York: Cambridge University Press. Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283. Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Lyster, R. and Mori, H. (2006). Interactional Feedback And Instructional Counterbalance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28 , 269-300 McDonough, K. (2004) Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context System 32 (2) 207-224 Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450. Morley, J. (1991) The pronunciation component in teaching English to speaker sof other languages. TESOL Quarterly Morrice, L. (2007) Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172 Olivo, W. (2003) Quit Talking and Learn English!: Conflicting Language Ideologies in an ESL Classroom Anthropology Education Quarterly  34 (1) 50-71 Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D. and Linnell, J. (1996) Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly 30 59-84. Roberts, C. Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5 Rollinson, P. (2005) Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class ELT Journal Volume 59/1 ELT Journal 59 (1) . Schellekens, P. (2007) The Oxford ESOL Handbook Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seedhouse, P. (2005) Conversation Analysis and language learning. Language Teaching (2005), 38: 165-187 Cambridge University Press Shin, H. (2006) Rethinking TESOL From a SOLs Perspective: Indigenous Epistemology and Decolonizing Praxis in TESOL Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 3 (23) 147 – 167. Taylor, L. (2006) The changing landscape of English: implications for language assessment ELT Journal 60(1):51-60 Wallace, C. (2006) The text, dead or alive: Expanding textual repertoires in the adult ESOL classroom, Linguistics and Education, 17, 74-90 Widdowson, H.G. (1978) Teaching language as communication Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141. Zamel, V. and Spack, R. (2006) Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25 (2) 126-152.

Requirements for Airline Cadet Program Candidates

For candidates, airlines have few if any requirements on nationality, place of residence, gender, education, work experience, degree, school performance and etc. If you compare the requirements for a management trainee program in a big company, you will find the things airline ask for is just essential. But the number of people airline recruit is a lot more than the number of management trainee†¦ and I don't see the need to compare their starting salaries†¦ But this does not mean it is easy to get into airline. Actually, airline pilot selection is one of the most, if not THE most, rigorous selection procedure you can find. Then what are the criteria airlines use to select their new hires? The answer to this question is, instead of appearance, education or other external factors, airline value more about professional knowledge and people skill. To be specific, the professional knowledge in flying theories, planes and flight environment and stress management under pressure, management and control of multiple tasks and accurate communication. In other words, the airline selection is structured around its professional knowledge and skill needs and the criteria are to test how passionate and committed the candidates are, how much efforts the candidates contributed and how their psychological development is. Concretely speaking, the basic requirements to be an airline pilot include: Age & gender: between 18 to 35. There is NO discrimination in genders. So male and female have the same opportunities; Vision: The current normative on pilots affirms that â€Å"If normal sights can be restored with the help of lenses or glasses, visual defects are not a impediment for becoming a pilot†. This means that you can become a pilot if you suffer from visual defects that can be corrected by glasses or lenses. Astigmatism, Hyperopic (long sightedness), Presbyopia and Myopia are not cause for pilot rejection. LASIK or laser operation: Pay attention though not to do a LASIK or laser operation, because this in most of the cases will stop your career forever. A Lasik or Eye Laser operation, can have slight sight effects that are a deterrent for pilots. A common side effect is night starburst of halos effects. These are typical in low lights situation with bright lights sources, usually the cockpit is low light with bright lights coming from the instruments. These effects can reduce the ability to judge or read an instrument and therefore will impede the pilot to do his own job. Medical conditions: The medical conditions that will impede you to enter will be: serious heart problems or coronary problems, clinical hypertension, color blindness or retina damages, brain damages or reduced motor skills, serious psychological problems like clinical depression, or any serious life threatening problem. For sure you will have known in advance if you have such serious medical conditions. Candidate nationality: For the cadet pilots programs in China, like the one of China Southern, you need to be a Chinese citizen to apply. For most of the other cadet programs, like the one in HK or Singapore, any nationality can be admitted, including Mainland Chinese nationals; Education requirement: A degree or diploma is needed, in any discipline, or a Form 7 equivalent with a pass in Math or Physics will do the fare. There is no preference for any discipline, so even if your degree is in art it will be accepted and will not handicap you; Major: The airline companies do not have any requirement on the major in university. Well, they don't even require a university degree, so†¦ The general belief is that actually, a business major will be good for the long term development if you want to get a management position after; Health conditions: In terms of health, a normal youngster health condition will be more than enough to enter and pass the medical selections. You will need to pass 2 medical checks called ICAO Level 1 and Level 2 Medical, but usually these are no hurdle for entering the cadet. Anybody who satisfies these requirements above is capable for the airline pilot career. Then, let's move to how to change the â€Å"capable† into â€Å"very capable†. In other words, what are the key criteria the airlines value and how to improve these criteria so you can pass the interviews to be an airline pilot.

Construction and Carpentry - 991 Words

Carpentry has been around for quite some time yet has experienced a growth which includes updating the tools and safety of the profession. Working with wood is a skill that has been around since man created his first tool. From carpentry’s beginnings, it has developed enormously, but in its essence, the tools and techniques our modern carpenters use today are the same as those used in the Stone Age. The Bureau of Labor Statistics defines carpenters as â€Å"people who construct, erect, install and repair structures and fixtures made from wood and other materials.† This trade has an extensive history, an expansive modern field, and with it, I plan to build a tree house, thus making a difference in a kid’s life. The term â€Å"carpentry† comes from†¦show more content†¦Sneakers are not counted as safety equipment, but they are only used by roofers. Sneakers, sandals, and dress shoes should not be worn on the job they do not provide enough protection. Only safety shoes should be worn on the job. Gloves are important for carpentry because they can keep your hands safe and sometimes we ne ed, warm. Probably the best gloves for carpentry work are a lightweight type. A suede finish to the leather improves the gripping ability of the gloves, and cloth gloves tend to catch rough materials. Before you go to work on any job, make sure that your entire body is properly protected. Hard hats, flannel clothes, gloves, goggles, and proper shoes should be looked over to make sure you have them, and after you know you have them you are clear to go to work. Carpenters work in unfinished surroundings; this is why it’s all good to make sure your safe. While a house is being built, there are many unsafe places around the building site. When a house is almost finished, there can still be some hazards. Wood left on the roofs could fall and hit you still (â€Å"Everyday Carpentry†5). 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